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  • Child Psychiatry in DSM-5 (August/September)
  • Diagnostic Comorbidity in DSM-5: More of the Same

Diagnostic Comorbidity in DSM-5: More of the Same

The Carlat Child Psychiatry Report, Volume 4, Number 5, August 2013
https://www.thecarlatreport.com/newsletter-issue/ccprv4n5/

From The Carlat Child Psychiatry Report, August 2013, Child Psychiatry in DSM-5

Issue Links: Learning Objectives | Editorial Information | PDF of Issue

Topics: Child Psychiatry | DSM | Free Articles

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David A. Frenz, MD

The epidemic of psychiatric comorbidity has been a problem since DSM-III appeared way back in 1980. Not much has been done to improve this area in the subsequent editions of the manual. Nonetheless, in this article we’ll explore psychiatric comorbidity in DSM-5: its origins, current status, and potential solutions for the next go-around.

Comorbidity is the concept that individuals can have more than one distinct disease. Shortly after epidemiologist Alvan Feinstein began exploring the concept of comorbidity in internal medicine in the 70s, the idea found fertile ground in psychiatry. Some authorities, however, think the jump from general medicine to psychiatry was a huge mistake. Scott Lilienfeld and collaborators stated that “the application of the term and concept of comorbidity to psychopathological syndromes is almost invariably misleading and arguably has led to more confusion than clarification” (Lilienfield SO et al, Clin Psychol Sci Pract 1994;1(1):71–83).

Prevalence

Prevalence data concerning mental illness and comorbidity come from the National Comorbidity Survey (NCS), a study that begin in 1990. Household surveys of representative samples of the US population have been conducted at intervals using structured clinical interviews and reported over the years.

The first wave of data demonstrated a 48% lifetime prevalence of mental illness with a roughly equal rate for both men and women (Kessler RC et al, Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994;51(1);8–19). The corresponding 12-month prevalence was about 30%. Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) was most common (17% lifetime prevalence), followed by social phobia (13%) and alcohol dependence (14%).

A second round of the study found that of patients with any mental disorder, 21% had just one diagnosis, 13% had two diagnoses and 14% had three or more diagnoses on a lifetime basis. The 12-month prevalence rates were in the same ballpark. A replication survey was conducted starting in 2001 and found similar numbers (Kessler RC et al, Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005;62(6):593–602; Kessler RC et al, Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005;62(6):617–627).

These data likely underestimated the true prevalence of mental illness. People who were homeless and institutionalized were excluded from the study, and primary psychotic disorders and most personality disorders were not assessed.

Causes of the Controversy

A moment of sober reflection raises a question: Our patients are ill, to be sure, but can they really be that ill? We know patients can have tremendous symptom burdens, which would lead one to say, “Yes.” But do they have multiple illnesses? Perhaps not.

Michael First, editor of DSM-IV, observed “in psychiatry, cases of true comorbidity are relatively rare since, for most disorders, we do not know enough about the underlying pathophysiology to be able to determine whether the disorders are truly clinically distinct” (First MB, Psychopathology 2005(4);38:206–210).

Other authors have offered various explanations for apparent comorbidity (Dell’Osso L and Pini S, Clin Pract Epidemiol Ment Health 2012;8:180–184). The primary causes are artifacts of DSM’s categorical structure involving hundreds of criteria sets. For example, patients with MDD often meet criteria for generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). When one parses symptoms, however, dysregulated sleep, fatigue, and cognitive problems are common to both criteria sets. Instead of two mental disorders, maybe we are really dealing with just one underlying illness with various manifestations.

Dimensional Solutions

Various DSM luminaries have pointed out that psychiatry wasn’t always so confused (Pincus HA et al, World Psychiatry 2004;3(1):18–23). Previously, clinicians were more parsimonious and employed a “one disease, one diagnosis” model to describe patient presentations. This lumping was achieved through the use of various “qualifying phrases” to capture all of the texture.

A dimensional approach to diagnosis, which is a sophisticated throwback to this earlier era, has been proposed as a possible solution to artifactual comorbidity (Goldberg D, Br J Psychiatry Suppl 1996;30:44). This involves looking carefully at the connections between various mental disorders that seem to be closely related, such as affective and anxious symptoms. Other dimensional solutions view symptoms on a continuum—for example, the degree or severity of anhedonia—rather than the current yes/no criteria involving clinical thresholds (eg, “most of the day, nearly every day”).

There is considerable empirical support for lumping mental disorders together. Robert Krueger, using NCS data, derived a three-factor model that organizes mental disorders into broad themes or patterns: internalizing problems and externalizing problems (Krueger RF, Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999;56(10):921–926). The former is further divided into two groups: anxious-misery and fear.

Using this approach, DSM categories cluster together. MDD, dysthymic disorder, and GAD become related forms of anxious-misery; panic disorder, agoraphobia, and various phobias represent fear; and addiction and antisocial personality disorder are lumped into externalizing problems.

DSM-5 strongly considered some dimensional solutions. One involved mixed anxiety/depression (MAD), which is already recognized by the World Health Organization’s International Classification of Diseases and was buried at the back of DSM-IV-TR for further study. Ultimately,however, MAD was torpedoed and does not appear in DSM-5.

Another dimensional solution involved completely retooling personality disorders (PDs). Some of this was driven by studies that demonstrated that patients often meet criteria for multiple PDs (Torgersen S et al, Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001;58(6):590–596), which is a little hard to wrap your mind around using categorical constructs.

The model that DSM-5 floated involved two components: personality functioning and pathological personality traits (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association, 2013, p. 761–781).

Personality functioning was further divided into an assessment of identity, self-direction, empathy and intimacy, all of which were rated on scales from 0 (little or no impairment) to 4 (extreme impairment). Patients with at least moderate impairment in personality functioning were diagnosed with a personality disorder if they also had pathological personality traits.

Like MAD, this proposal didn’t make the final cut. It has, however, been retained toward the back of DSM-5 as an “alternative model” that might be ready for prime time in the future.

CCPR’s Verdict: DSM-5 does little to resolve our issues with diagnostic comorbidity. It remains narrowly categorical and took a pass on some attempts at dimensional constructs. But that doesn’t mean we should limit ourselves. Get creative and start adding some texture to your diagnoses (eg, generalized anxiety disorder, moderate, improved). This will better describe the nuances of each patient and improve communication with other clinicians. Plus, just because the DSM categories don’t fit our patients, doesn’t mean we have to use just those. Dust off the descriptors and dimensions. We don’t have to limit our formulations to insurance reimbursed diagnostic coding for anything other than the bill.

David A. Frenz, MD

Medical Director, Addiction Medicine, HealthEast Care System, St. Paul, MN, Editor-in-chief, The Carlat Addiction Treatment Report

Dr. Frenz has disclosed that he has no relevant relationships or financial interests in any commercial company related to this educational activity.

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Courses and Book CME
Medication Fact Book for Psychiatric Practice, Sixth Edition (2022)
2022 Carlat Psychiatry Report Self-Assessment Course
Prescribing Psychotropics: From Drug Interactions to Genetics
The Child Medication Fact Book for Psychiatric Practice (2018)
Issues Archives

2022

  • ADHD in Children and Adolescents (April/May/June)
  • Assessment in Children and Adolescents (January/February/March)

2021

  • Overarousal in Children and Adolescents (Oct/Nov/Dec)
  • Substance Use in Children and Adolescents (Jul/Aug/Sep)
  • Autism in Children and Adolescents (April/May/June)
  • Clinical Complexity With Children and Adolescents (Jan/Feb/Mar)

2020

  • Esketamine (January)
  • Telepsychiatry (May)
  • Mind-Gut Connection (January)
  • Practical Psychotherapy (November/December)
  • Mood and Menopause (October)
  • When to Use Lithium (September)
  • Traumatic Brain Injury (August)
  • Borderline Personality Disorder (June/July)
  • Psychopharmacology Algorithms (April)
  • Bipolar II (March)
  • Inflammation and Depression (February)

2020

  • Mood Disorders in Children and Adolescents (Oct/Nov/Dec)
  • Identity & Culture in Children and Adolescents (July/August/September)
  • Psychosis in Children and Adolescents (April/May/June)
  • ADHD in Children and Adolescents (Jan/Feb/Mar)

2020

  • Harm Reduction (January/February)
  • Substance Use in Health Professionals (March/April)
  • Alternative Treatment in Addiction (November/December)
  • Social Aspects of Addiction (September/October)
  • Opioid Use Disorder Treatment (July/August)
  • Emerging Risks for Old Medications (May/June)

2019

  • Depression (May)
  • Adult ADHD (November/December)
  • Mental Health Apps (October)
  • How to Talk about Medication (September)
  • Side Effects Part II (August)
  • Side Effects Part I (June/July)
  • Sleep (April)
  • Parenting, Pregnancy, and Prevention (March)
  • Dark and Light Therapy (February)
  • Deprescribing (January)

2018

  • Drug Metabolism (November/December)
  • Working With Transgender Patients (October)
  • Emergency Psychiatry (September)
  • Treatment-Resistant Depression (July/August)
  • Neurobiology (June)
  • Anxiety (May)
  • Neurofeedback (April)
  • Antipsychotics Update (March)
  • Working With Families (February)
  • Bipolar Disorder (January)

2017

  • PTSD (December)
  • Retirement (November)
  • Intellectual Disability (September/October)
  • Antidepressants (July/August)
  • Personality Disorders (June)
  • Dementia (May)
  • Cognitive Behavior Therapy Techniques (April)
  • Pharmacogenetics (March)
  • Treating Psychosis (February)
  • Adult ADHD (January)

2016

  • Complementary and Alternative Medicine in Psychiatry (November/December)
  • Side Effects (October)
  • Pain Management (September)
  • Medication in Pregnancy (July/August)
  • Psychoanalysis in Modern Psychiatry (June)
  • Correctional Psychiatry (May)
  • Antidepressant Roundup (April)
  • Burnout (March)
  • Private Practice (February)
  • Bipolar Disorder (January)

2015

  • Psychiatry and General Medicine (November/December)
  • Biomarkers in Psychiatry (May)
  • Telepsychiatry (October)
  • Sleep Disorders (September)
  • Interventional Psychiatry (July/August)
  • Eating Disorders (June)
  • Psychotherapy Updates (April)
  • Topics in Geriatric Psychiatry (March)
  • Antipsychotics Update (February)
  • Risk Management (January)

2014

  • Bipolar Disorder (November/December)
  • Pharmacogenetics (October)
  • Keeping up in Psychiatry (September)
  • Research in Psychiatry (July/August)
  • Marijuana (June)
  • Psychiatric Diagnosis (May)
  • Issues in Psychopharmacology (April)
  • Schizophrenia (March)
  • Women’s Psychiatry (February)
  • Ethics in Psychiatry (January)

2013

  • Military Psychiatry (December)
  • Depression (November)
  • Treatment of Dementia (October)
  • Anxiety Disorders (September)
  • Natural and Alternative Treatments in Psychiatry (July/August)
  • Autism Spectrum Disorder (June)
  • Practice Tips (May)
  • Substance Abuse (April)
  • Medicolegal Topics (March)
  • End of Life Care (February)
  • Antipsychotic Update (January)

2012

  • Screening Tools and Tips (December)
  • Medical Comorbidities (November)
  • Devices in Psychiatry (October)
  • Eating Disorders (September)
  • Bipolar Disorder (July/August)
  • Risk Management (June)
  • Antidepressant Roundup 2012 (May)
  • Gender and Sexuality (April)
  • Personality Disorders (March)
  • ADHD (February)
  • Natural Treatments in Psychiatry (January)

2011

  • Electronic Medical Records (December)
  • Insomnia (November)
  • Psychotherapy (October)
  • Alcoholism (September)
  • Anxiety Disorders (July/August)
  • Schizophrenia (June)
  • Managing Side Effects (May)
  • Antidepressant Roundup 2011 (April)
  • DSM-5 and Diagnostic Issues (March)
  • Drug-Drug Interactions (February)
  • Bipolar Disorder (January)

2010

  • Hospital Psychiatry (December)
  • Psychiatric Medication in Pregnancy (November)
  • Maintenance of Certification (October)
  • The Neuroscience of Psychotherapy (September)
  • Treatment of Depression (July/August)
  • Email and the Internet in Psychiatry (June)
  • Substance Abuse (May)
  • The Diagnosis and Treatment of Dementia (April)
  • Ethics in Psychiatry (March)
  • Natural Treatments in Psychiatry (February)
  • ADHD (January)

2009

  • Treating Schizophrenia (December)
  • Treatment for Anxiety Disorders (November)
  • The Latest on Antidepressants (October)
  • Topics in Neuropsychiatry (September)
  • The Interface of Medicine and Psychiatry (July/August)
  • Generic Medications in Psychiatry (June)
  • The Treatment of Eating Disorders (May)
  • Healthcare Policy and Psychiatry (April)
  • Antipsychotic Roundup 2009 (March)
  • Psychiatric Medication in Pregnancy and Lactation (February)
  • Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (January)

2008

  • Treating Fibromyalgia and Pain in Psychiatry (December)
  • Issues in Child Psychiatry (November)
  • Improving Psychiatric Practice (October)
  • Treating Personality Disorders (September)
  • Bipolar Disorder (July/August)
  • Antipsychotic Roundup 2008 (June)
  • Atypical Antipsychotics in Clinical Practice (February)
  • Neuropsychological Testing (May)
  • Psychiatric Medications: Effects and Side Effects (April)
  • Update on Substance Abuse (March)
  • Anticonvulsants in Psychiatry (February)
  • Brain Devices in Psychiatry (January)

2007

  • The Treatment of Insomnia (December)
  • Avoiding Malpractice in Psychiatry (November)
  • Update on Eating Disorders (October)
  • Complex Psychopharmacology (September)
  • Laboratory Testing in Psychiatry (August)
  • Psychotherapy in Psychiatry (July)
  • Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (June)
  • Topics in Geriatric Psychiatry 2007 (May)
  • Pregnancy and Menopause in Psychiatry (Apil)
  • Antipsychotic Roundup 2007 (March)
  • Understanding Psychiatric Research (February)
  • Antidepressant Round-up 2007 (January)

2006

  • Technology and Psychiatric Practice (December)
  • The Use of MAOIs (November)
  • Medication Treatment of Depression (January)
  • Seasonal Affective Disorder (October)
  • Treatment of ADHD (September)
  • Topics in Bipolar Disorder (August)
  • Neurotransmitters in Psychiatry (July)
  • Treating Substance Abuse (June)
  • The STAR*D Antidepressant Trial (May)
  • Natural Treatments in Psychiatry (April)
  • Medication Treatment of Anxiety (March)
  • Panic Disorder: Making Treatment Work (March)
  • Antipsychotic Roundup 2006 (February)
  • Antidepressant Roundup 2006 (January)

2005

  • Self-Help Books and Psychiatry (December)
  • Genetics and Psychiatry (November)
  • Pregnancy and Psychiatric Treatment (October)
  • Benzodiazepines and Hypnotics in Psychiatry (September)
  • Geriatric Psychiatry Update (August)
  • Chart Documentation in Psychiatry (July)
  • The Treatment of Bipolar Disorder (June)
  • Weight Loss and Smoking Cessation in Psychiatry (May)
  • Treating ADHD (April)
  • Drug Industry Influence in Psychiatry (March)
  • Atypical Antipsychotics 2005 (February)
  • Antidepressant Roundup 2005 (January)

2004

  • Sexual Dysfunction (December)
  • Suicide Prevention (November)
  • To Sleep, To Awake (October)
  • Women’s Issues in Psychiatry (September)
  • OCD: An Update (August)
  • Chronic Pain and Psychiatry (July)
  • Neuroimaging in Psychiatry (June)
  • Natural Medications in Psychiatry (May)
  • Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (April)
  • Treatment of Alcoholism (March)
  • Battle of the Atypicals (February)
  • Antidepressant Roundup, 2004 (January)

2003

  • Research Methods in Psychiatry (December)
  • Antidepressants in Children (November)
  • The Treatment of Dementia (October)
  • Bipolar Disorder, Part II: The Novel Anticonvulsants (September)
  • Bipolar Disorder: The Basics (August)
  • Drug-Drug Interactions in Psychiatry (July)
  • Managing Antidepressant Side Effects (June)
  • Antidepressants in Pregnancy and Lactation (May)
  • ADHD: Medication Options (April)
  • Panic Disorder: Making Treatment Work (March)
  • Atypical Antipsychotics in Clinical Practice (February)
  • Medication Treatment of Depression (January)

2019

  • Autism in Children and Adolescents (November/December)
  • Depression in Children and Adolescents (May/June/July/August)
  • Substance Use in Children and Adolescents (September/October)
  • Trauma in Children and Adolescents (March/April)
  • Anxiety in Children and Adolescents (January/February)

2018

  • Psychotropic Risks in Children and Adolescents (May/June)
  • ADHD in Children and Adolescents (November/December)
  • Depression in Children and Adolescents (September/October)
  • Autism in Children and Adolescents (July/August)
  • Anxiety in Children and Adolescents (March/April)
  • Suicide in Children and Adolescents (January/February)

2017

  • Adolescents (November/December)
  • ADHD in Children and Adolescents (September/October)
  • Psychosis in Children and Adolescents (August)
  • PANDAS, PANS, and Related Disorders (June/July)
  • Marijuana in Children and Adolescents (May)
  • Tourette’s and Other Tic Disorders in Children and Adolescents (March/April)
  • Autism in Children and Adolescents (January/February)

2016

  • Gender Dysphoria in Children and Adolescents (November/December)
  • Technology Issues With Children and Adolescents (September/October)
  • Mood Dysregulation in Children and Adolescents (July/August)
  • Eating Disorders in Children and Adolescents (May/June)
  • Conduct Disorder in Children and Adolescents (April)
  • Sleep Disorders in Children and Adolescents (March)
  • ADHD in Children and Adolescents (January/February)

2015

  • Antidepressant Use in Children (November/December)
  • Foster Care and Child Psychiatry (September/October)
  • Autism (July/August)
  • Trauma (May/June)
  • Anxiety Disorders (April)
  • Schools and Psychiatry (March)
  • Emergency Psychiatry in Children (January/February)

2014

  • Antipsychotics in Children (December)
  • ADHD (November)
  • Gender and Sexuality (September/October)
  • Psychotic Symptoms (Summer)
  • Medication Side Effects (May)
  • Food and Mood (April)
  • Learning and Developmental Disabilities (February)

2013

  • Complex Practice Issues (December)
  • Diet and Nutrition (November)
  • Child Psychiatry in DSM-5 (August/September)
  • Medication Side Effects and Interactions (June/July)
  • Problematic Technology (March/April)
  • Autism Spectrum Disorders (January/February)

2012

  • Bipolar Disorder (December)
  • Substance Abuse (October/November)
  • Transitional Age Youth (July/August)
  • Rating Scales (May/June)
  • Eating Disorders (March/April)
  • Behavioral Disorders (February)

2011

  • Treatment of Anxiety Disorders (December)
  • Trauma (November)
  • Bullying and School Issues (October)
  • Hidden Medical Disorders (August)
  • OCD and Tic Disorders (June)
  • Suicide and Non-Suicidal Self Injury (April)
  • Sleep Disorders (March)
  • ADHD (January)

2010

  • Use of Antipsychotics in Children and Adolescents (December)
  • Learning and Developmental Disabilities (October)
  • Major Depression (September)
  • Treating Children and Families (July)
  • The Explosive Child (May)

2019

  • Dual Diagnosis in Addiction Medicine (May/June)
  • Medical Issues in Addiction Practice (November/December)
  • Alcohol Addiction (September/October)
  • Legal Issues in Addiction Medicine (July/August)
  • Traumatic Brain Injury and Addiction (March/April)
  • Board Certification in Addiction Medicine (January/February)

2018

  • Opioid Addiction (November/December)
  • Addiction in Older Adults (October)
  • Sleep Disorders and Addiction (September)
  • Adolescent Addiction (July/August)
  • Pain and Addiction (May/June)
  • Cannabis and Addiction (March/April)
  • Stigma and Addiction (January/February)

2017

  • Pregnancy and Addiction (November/December)
  • Detox (Sepember/October)
  • Dual Diagnosis (August)
  • Alternatives to 12-Step Programs (June/July)
  • Recovery (May)
  • Psychiatric Uses of Street Drugs (March/April)
  • Sex Addiction (January/February)

2016

  • Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs (PDMPs) (November/December)
  • Addiction in Health Care Professionals (September/October)
  • Dialectical Behavior Therapy in Addiction (August)
  • Motivational Interviewing (June/July)
  • Benzodiazepines (May)
  • Opioid Addiction (March/April)
  • Families and Substance Abuse (January/February)

2015

  • The Twelve Steps (November/December)
  • Designer Drugs (September/October)
  • Residential Treatment Programs Decoded (July/August)
  • Nicotine and E-Cigarettes (June)
  • Drug Screening (April/May)
  • Integrating Therapy and Medications for Alcoholism (March)
  • Detoxification Protocols (January/February)

2014

  • Behavioral Addictions (December)
  • Risk and Reimbursement (November)
  • Stimulant Abuse (September/October)
  • Self-Help Programs (June)
  • Opioid Addiction (May)
  • Coping with Bad Outcomes (March)
  • Change Management in Addiction Treatment (January/February)

2013

  • Cocaine Addiction (December)
  • Relapse Prevention (November)
  • Cannabis Addiction (August/September)
  • Addiction in DSM-5 (June/July)
Editor-in-Chief

Joshua D. Feder, MD

Dr. Joshua Feder studied mathematics and medicine at Boston University, Psychiatry at Naval Regional Medical Center San Diego, serving the first gulf war in child and adolescent psychiatry fellowship at Tripler Army Medical Center in Honolulu, and eventually becoming Chief of Child Psychiatry at the National Naval Medical Center in Bethesda, MD. Dr. Feder now practices in Solana Beach, California and serves as Medical Director at Positive Development, providing relationship-based support for families, with research at UCSD, SDSU, Fielding Graduate University, An Najah National University, Quicksilver Software, Autism Is inclusion program, and Programmatic Lead for the International Networking Group on Peace Building with Young Children, with projects in the US, Northern Ireland, and the Middle East. Dr. Feder co-authored the first American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry Practice Parameter on Autism and serves on the Disaster & Trauma Committee and the Resource Group on Youth at the Border. Dr Feder was founding policy chair for the California Association for Infant Mental Health, and advocates worldwide on access to care, climate policy, and peacebuilding. His recent books include Child Medication Fact Book for Psychiatric Practice (2018) and Prescribing Psychotropics (2021).

Full Editorial Information

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